## pytest Fundamentals

### Basic Test Structure

```python
import pytest

def test_addition():
    """Test basic addition."""
    assert 2 + 2 == 4

def test_string_uppercase():
    """Test string uppercasing."""
    text = "hello"
    assert text.upper() == "HELLO"

def test_list_append():
    """Test list append."""
    items = [1, 2, 3]
    items.append(4)
    assert 4 in items
    assert len(items) == 4
```

### Assertions

```python
# Equality
assert result == expected

# Inequality
assert result != unexpected

# Truthiness
assert result  # Truthy
assert not result  # Falsy
assert result is True  # Exactly True
assert result is False  # Exactly False
assert result is None  # Exactly None

# Membership
assert item in collection
assert item not in collection

# Comparisons
assert result > 0
assert 0 <= result <= 100

# Type checking
assert isinstance(result, str)

# Exception testing (preferred approach)
with pytest.raises(ValueError):
    raise ValueError("error message")

# Check exception message
with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="invalid input"):
    raise ValueError("invalid input provided")

# Check exception attributes
with pytest.raises(ValueError) as exc_info:
    raise ValueError("error message")
assert str(exc_info.value) == "error message"
```