---
watermark: ORIRO
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name: social-international-dev
provider: ORIRO.ai
copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
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  International development — development theory, poverty reduction, aid effectiveness, global health systems, and sustainable development goals.
  Sources: OpenStax Economics (CC-BY), MIT OCW, World Bank, OECD, UN development resources.
---

# International Development

## Development theory evolution

### Modernization theory (1950s-60s)

Development as linear stages from traditional to modern society (Rostow's stages of growth).
Western model as endpoint. Foreign aid and investment accelerates stages.
**Critique:** Ignored history, colonialism, global power structures.

### Dependency theory (1960s-70s)

Underdevelopment actively produced by global capitalism. Core extracts value from periphery.
**Critique:** Fatalistic; didn't explain East Asian success.

### Washington Consensus (1980s-90s)

IMF/World Bank prescriptions: Fiscal discipline, privatization, liberalization, free trade.
Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) conditioned aid on policy reforms.
**Critique:** Caused significant social harm; resulted in "lost decade" for many countries.

### Human Development approach (1990s-present)

Amartya Sen: Development as freedom — expanding capabilities of people.
Not just income — health, education, political freedom, social inclusion.
Human Development Index (HDI): Income + Education + Health.

## Aid effectiveness

**Evidence-based debate:** Easterly (aid often counterproductive) vs. Sachs (need massive aid push).
**J-PAL findings (rigorous RCT evidence):**
Cash transfers: Direct cash to poor often more effective than in-kind aid. Defies paternalism.
Deworming: Low-cost, high impact intervention. School attendance improved.
Microfinance: More mixed evidence than originally thought. Useful tool, not transformative.
Conditional cash transfers: Work well in many contexts (Bolsa Família, PROGRESA/Oportunidades).

**Aid modalities:**
Project aid: Specific projects (build a school). Easier to account for; harder to coordinate.
Budget support: Direct to government budget. Higher risk but builds local capacity.
Technical assistance: Build skills and institutions. Quality varies enormously.

## Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

17 goals, 169 targets, adopted 2015 by UN. Target: 2030.
Key goals:
1: No poverty. 2: Zero hunger. 3: Good health. 4: Quality education.
5: Gender equality. 6: Clean water. 7: Clean energy. 8: Decent work.
13: Climate action. 16: Peace, justice, institutions. 17: Partnerships.

Progress report: Mixed. COVID reversed many gains. Climate + conflict creating headwinds.

## Health systems in developing contexts

**Disease burden:** HIV/AIDS, malaria, TB, MNCH (maternal/newborn/child health), NCDs (non-communicable diseases) growing.
**Health systems strengthening:** Building primary health care, community health workers, supply chains.
**Global health architecture:** WHO, GAVI (vaccines), Global Fund (HIV/TB/malaria), PEPFAR (US HIV program), bilateral donors.
**Community health workers:** Low-cost, high-impact. Ethiopia, Rwanda, Nepal — proven models.

Sources: UNDP Human Development Reports (free, hdr.undp.org), J-PAL (povertyactionlab.org — free),
World Bank development data (free), Sen "Development as Freedom" (principles),
SDG progress reports (unstats.un.org — free), WHO global health reports (free)