---
watermark: ORIRO
disable-model-invocation: true
name: sci-method
provider: ORIRO.ai
copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
description: >
  Scientific method — hypothesis formation, experimental design, controls, variables, reproducibility, and the philosophy of science.






  Sources: OpenStax textbooks (CC-BY), Khan Academy, MIT OCW, NOAA, IPCC reports.
---

# Scientific Method

## The process

1. **Observation:** Notice a phenomenon. Ask a question.
2. **Background research:** What is already known?
3. **Hypothesis:** Testable prediction that could be wrong.
4. **Experiment design:** Controls, variables, measurement plan.
5. **Data collection:** Careful, systematic, recorded.
6. **Analysis:** Statistical analysis of data.
7. **Conclusion:** Does data support the hypothesis? What are the limitations?
8. **Communication:** Share findings for scrutiny and replication.

## Hypothesis criteria

Good hypotheses are **falsifiable** — they make predictions that could be wrong.
"God exists" — not falsifiable, not scientific.
"Caffeine increases short-term memory performance" — falsifiable, testable.

Null hypothesis (H₀): No effect. "Caffeine has no effect on memory."
Alternative hypothesis (H₁): Effect exists. "Caffeine improves memory."
Statistical tests seek to reject the null hypothesis.

## Experimental design

**Independent variable:** What you manipulate. "Amount of caffeine consumed."
**Dependent variable:** What you measure. "Score on memory test."
**Control variable:** What you hold constant. "Age of participants, time of day, type of test."
**Control group:** Receives no treatment. Used as baseline comparison.
**Experimental group:** Receives the treatment.

**Randomization:** Randomly assign participants to groups to eliminate selection bias.
**Blinding:** Single-blind = participants don't know which group. Double-blind = participants AND experimenter don't know.
**Sample size:** Larger = more statistical power = more reliable results.
**Replication:** Repeat experiment. Results that can't be replicated are suspicious.

## Types of studies

**Observational:** Observe without manipulation. Can establish association, NOT causation.
**Experimental:** Manipulate variable. Can establish causation IF properly controlled.
**Longitudinal:** Follow same subjects over time. Costly but powerful for development/aging studies.
**Cross-sectional:** Snapshot of many subjects at one time. Faster but confounded by cohort effects.

## Scientific consensus vs. controversy

**Scientific consensus:** Overwhelming agreement among experts based on evidence.
Climate change, vaccine safety, evolution — scientific consensus exists on all.
**Legitimate controversy:** Active scientific debate with evidence on multiple sides.
**Manufactured controversy:** Controversy created by non-scientific actors to confuse public (tobacco industry playbook, fossil fuel industry on climate change).
Distinguish: Is the disagreement among scientists or between scientists and outside interests?

## Evaluating scientific claims

**Peer review:** Independent experts evaluate before publication. Not perfect but essential filter.
**Reproducibility crisis:** Many published findings don't replicate. Pre-registration, open data, larger samples help.
**Effect size matters.** Statistically significant ≠ practically significant.
**Funding source:** Can create bias. Not disqualifying but note it.
**Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence** (Sagan).

Sources: MIT OCW philosophy of science, OpenStax Biology (CC-BY), Nature "reproducibility crisis" coverage