---
watermark: ORIRO
disable-model-invocation: true
name: humanities-indian-classical
provider: ORIRO.ai
copyright: Copyright (c) 2026 ORIRO.ai
description: >
  Indian classical knowledge — Sanskrit basics, Vedantic philosophy, Upanishads,
  Bhagavad Gita, classical texts, Yoga Sutras, Indian logic (Nyaya), and major
  schools of Indian philosophy. Sources: Gita Press (free), IGNCA digital library,
  public domain translations.
---

# Indian Classical Knowledge

## Sanskrit basics (संस्कृत)

### Devanagari script

Sanskrit written in Devanagari (same script as Hindi).
Vowels (स्वर): अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ए ऐ ओ औ अं अः
Consonants (व्यंजन): Classified by point of articulation:
Velar: क ख ग घ ङ
Palatal: च छ ज झ ञ
Retroflex: ट ठ ड ढ ण
Dental: त थ द ध न
Labial: प फ ब भ म
Semi-vowels: य र ल व
Sibilants/H: श ष स ह

### Grammar structure

Sanskrit is highly inflected. Nouns decline for 8 cases in 3 genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and 3 numbers (singular, dual, plural).
8 cases (विभक्ति): Nominative, Accusative, Instrumental, Dative, Ablative, Genitive, Locative, Vocative.
Verb roots (धातु): ~2,000 basic verb roots. Conjugated for person, number, tense, mode.
**Compound words (samasa):** Long Sanskrit words are often compounds (see Hindi grammar skill for samasa types).

### Key vocabulary

**Atman (आत्मन्):** Individual self/soul.
**Brahman (ब्रह्मन्):** Universal consciousness/ultimate reality.
**Dharma (धर्म):** Cosmic order, duty, righteousness, virtue.
**Karma (कर्म):** Action and its consequences. Law of cause and effect.
**Moksha (मोक्ष):** Liberation from cycle of rebirth.
**Maya (माया):** Illusion, the apparent world that conceals Brahman.
**Yoga (योग):** Union; also refers to spiritual practices.
**Guru (गुरु):** Teacher/dispeller of darkness.

## Six schools of classical Indian philosophy (Shad Darshanas)

### Nyaya

Founded by Gautama (not the Buddha). Logic and epistemology.
**Pramana (valid means of knowledge):** Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), Shabda (testimony).
**Syllogism (Anumana):** 5-member form: Pratijna (thesis), Hetu (reason), Udaharana (example), Upanaya (application), Nigamana (conclusion).
"There is fire on the mountain (Pratijna). Because there is smoke there (Hetu). Whatever has smoke has fire, as in a kitchen (Udaharana). This mountain has smoke (Upanaya). Therefore it has fire (Nigamana)."

### Vaisheshika

Atomic theory. Six categories (padarthas) of reality: Substance, Quality, Action, Universal, Particularity, Inherence.
Atoms (paramanu) are eternal, indivisible. Everything composed of atoms.

### Samkhya

Dualistic. Purusha (consciousness, 25th element, plural) and Prakriti (nature/matter).
Prakriti has three gunas (qualities): Sattva (purity, clarity), Rajas (activity, passion), Tamas (inertia, darkness).
Liberation: Purusha recognizes it is distinct from Prakriti.

### Yoga (Darshana)

Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. Practical school. Based on Samkhya metaphysics.
8-fold path (Ashtanga yoga): Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi.
Goal: Chitta vritti nirodha — cessation of fluctuations of the mind.

### Purva Mimamsa

Focus on ritual action (karma kanda) of Vedas. Established Vedic authority.
**Apurva:** Unseen potency created by ritual action, brings results in future.

### Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta)

Focus on knowledge section (jnana kanda) of Vedas — Upanishads.
Three main sub-schools:
**Advaita Vedanta (Adi Shankaracharya, 8th century):** Non-dualism. Brahman alone is real. Individual atman = Brahman. World is maya (illusion). "Aham Brahmasmi" (I am Brahman). "Tat tvam asi" (That thou art).
**Vishishtadvaita (Ramanujacharya, 11th century):** Qualified non-dualism. Brahman is real with qualities. Individual souls and matter are real but part of Brahman (modes of Brahman).
**Dvaita (Madhvacharya, 13th century):** Dualism. Brahman (Vishnu), individual souls, and matter are permanently distinct.

## Upanishads (principal 10-13)

Over 200 Upanishads. Ten principal: Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka.
**Mandukya Upanishad (12 verses — shortest):** Three states of consciousness: Waking (Vaishvanara), Dream (Taijasa), Deep sleep (Prajna). Plus Turiya (fourth — pure consciousness, Brahman).
**Brihadaranyaka:** Contains dialogue of Yajnavalkya with Maitreyi on atman. "Neti Neti" (Not this, Not this) method of knowing Brahman by negation.
**Chandogya:** "Tat tvam asi" — That art thou. Dialogue of Uddhalaka with Shvetaketu.

## Bhagavad Gita

18 chapters, 700 verses. Krishna's teachings to Arjuna in Mahabharata (Kurukshetra).
**Three yogas (paths):**
Jnana Yoga: Path of knowledge. Discriminate between real and unreal.
Bhakti Yoga: Path of devotion. Surrender to God.
Karma Yoga: Path of action. Act without attachment to results.
**Key teaching:** "You have a right to perform your prescribed duties, but not to the fruits of your actions." (2.47) — Nishkama karma (desireless action).

Sources: Gita Press (gitapress.org — free downloads), IGNCA Digital Library (ignca.gov.in — free), Sacred Texts (sacred-texts.com — public domain translations), Swami Vivekananda Complete Works (public domain)