Last updated: 2018-05-15

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Last updated: 2018-05-15

Code version: 388e65e

Introduction

In order to understand the behavior of \(p\)-values of top expressed, correlated genes under the global null, simulated from GTEx data, we apply two FWER-controlling multiple comparison procedures, Holm’s “step-down” (Holm 1979) and Hochberg’s “step-up.” (Hochberg 1988)

Holm’s step-down procedure: start from the smallest \(p\)-value

It can be shown that Holm’s procedure conservatively controls the FWER in the strong sense, under arbitrary correlation among \(p\)-values.

First, order the \(p\)-values

\[ p_{(1)} \leq p_{(2)} \leq \cdots \leq p_{(n)} \]

and let \(H_{(1)}, H_{(2)}, \ldots, H_{(n)}\) be the corresponding hypotheses. Then examine the \(p\)-values in order.

Step 1: If \(p_{(1)} \leq \alpha/n\) reject \(H_{(1)}\) and go to Step 2. Otherwise, accept \(H_{(1)}, H_{(2)}, \ldots, H_{(n)}\) and stop.

……

Step \(i\): If \(p_{(i)} \leq \alpha / (n − i + 1)\) reject \(H_{(i)}\) and go to step \(i + 1\). Otherwise, accept \(H_{(i)}, H_{(i + 1)}, \ldots, H_{(n)}\) and stop.

……

Step \(n\): If \(p_{(n)} \leq \alpha\), reject \(H_{(n)}\). Otherwise, accept \(H_{(n)}\).

Hence the procedure starts with the most extreme (smallest) \(p\)-value and stops the first time \(p_{(i)}\) exceeds the critical value \(\alpha_i = \alpha/(n − i + 1)\).

It can be shown that Holm’s procedure conservatively controls the FWER in the strong sense, under arbitrary correlation among \(p\)-values.

Hochberg’s step-up procedure: start from the largest \(p\)-value

It can be shown that Hochberg’s procedure conservatively controls the FWER in the strong sense, when \(p\)-values are independent.

First, order the \(p\)-values

\[ p_{(1)} \leq p_{(2)} \leq \cdots \leq p_{(n)} \]

and let \(H_{(1)}, H_{(2)}, \ldots, H_{(n)}\) be the corresponding hypotheses. Then examine the \(p\)-values in order.

Step 1: If \(p_{(n)} \leq \alpha\) reject \(H_{(1)}, \ldots, H_{(n)}\) and stop. Otherwise, accept \(H_{(n)}\) and go to step 2.

……

Step \(i\): If \(p_{(n - i + 1)} \leq \alpha / i\) reject \(H_{(1)}, \ldots, H_{(n - i + 1)}\) and stop. Otherwise, accept \(H_{(n - i + 1)}\) and go to step \(i + 1\).

……

Step \(n\): If \(p_{(1)} \leq \alpha / n\), reject \(H_{(1)}\). Otherwise, accept \(H_{(1)}\).

Hence the procedure starts with the least extreme (largest) \(p\)-value and stops the first time \(p_{(i)}\) falls below the critical value \(\alpha_i = \alpha/(n − i + 1)\).

It can be shown that Hochberg’s procedure conservatively controls the FWER in the strong sense, when \(p\)-values are independent.

Sarkar 1998 also pointed out that Hochberg’s procedure can control the FWER strongly under certain dependency among the test statistics, such as a multivariate normal with a common marginal distribution and positive correlations.

Holm’s procedure is based on Bonferroni correction, whereas Hochberg’s on Sime’s inequality. Both use exactly the same thresholds, comparing \(p_{(i)}\) with \(\alpha/(n − i + 1)\), yet Holm’s starts from the smallest \(p\)-value, and Hochberg’s from the largest. Hochberg’s is thus strictly more powerful than Holm’s.

Result

Now we apply the two procedures to the simulated, correlated null data.

p1 = read.table("../output/p_null_liver.txt")
p2 = read.table("../output/p_null_liver_777.txt")
p = rbind(p1, p2)
m = nrow(p)
holm = hochberg = matrix(nrow = m, ncol = ncol(p))

for(i in 1:m){
  holm[i, ] = p.adjust(p[i, ], method = "holm") # p-values adjusted by Holm (1979)
  hochberg[i, ] = p.adjust(p[i, ], method = "hochberg") # p_values adjusted by Hochberg (1988)
}
## calculate empirical FWER at 100 nominal FWER's

alpha = seq(0, 0.15, length = 100)
fwer_holm = fwer_hochberg = c()
for (i in 1:length(alpha)) {
  fwer_holm[i] = mean(apply(holm, 1, function(x) {min(x) <= alpha[i]}))
  fwer_hochberg[i] = mean(apply(hochberg, 1, function(x) {min(x) <= alpha[i]}))
}

fwer_holm_se = sqrt(fwer_holm * (1 - fwer_holm) / m)
fwer_hochberg_se = sqrt(fwer_hochberg * (1 - fwer_hochberg) / m)

Here at each nominal FWER from \(0\) to \(0.15\), we plot the empirical FWER, calculated from \(m = 2000\) independent simulation trials. Dotted lines indicate one standard error computed from binomial model \(= \sqrt{\hat{\text{FWER}}(1 - \hat{\text{FWER}}) / m}\).

plot(alpha, fwer_holm, pch = 1, xlab = "nominal FWER", ylab = "empirical FWER", xlim = c(0, max(alpha)), ylim = c(0, max(alpha)), cex = 0.75)
points(alpha, fwer_hochberg, col = "blue", pch = 19, cex = 0.25)
lines(alpha, fwer_holm - fwer_holm_se, lty = 3)
lines(alpha, fwer_holm + fwer_holm_se, lty = 3)
lines(alpha, fwer_hochberg + fwer_hochberg_se, lty = 3, col = "blue")
lines(alpha, fwer_hochberg - fwer_hochberg_se, lty = 3, col = "blue")

abline(0, 1, lty = 3, col = "red")
legend("topleft", c("Holm", "Hochberg"), col = c(1, "blue"), pch = c(1, 19))

Expand here to see past versions of unnamed-chunk-3-1.png:
Version Author Date
0f36d99 LSun 2017-12-21
2696cb2 LSun 2017-02-10

The results from Holm’s step-down and Hochberg’s step-up are almost the same for this simulated data set. They both give almost the same discoveries, although in theory Hochberg’s should be strictly more powerful than Holm’s. The agreement of both procedures may indicate that test statistics are indeed inflated for moderate observations but not extreme observations.

Session Information

Session information

sessionInfo()
R version 3.4.3 (2017-11-30)
Platform: x86_64-apple-darwin15.6.0 (64-bit)
Running under: macOS High Sierra 10.13.4

Matrix products: default
BLAS: /Library/Frameworks/R.framework/Versions/3.4/Resources/lib/libRblas.0.dylib
LAPACK: /Library/Frameworks/R.framework/Versions/3.4/Resources/lib/libRlapack.dylib

locale:
[1] en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8/C/en_US.UTF-8/en_US.UTF-8

attached base packages:
[1] stats     graphics  grDevices utils     datasets  methods   base     

loaded via a namespace (and not attached):
 [1] workflowr_1.0.1   Rcpp_0.12.16      digest_0.6.15    
 [4] rprojroot_1.3-2   R.methodsS3_1.7.1 backports_1.1.2  
 [7] git2r_0.21.0      magrittr_1.5      evaluate_0.10.1  
[10] stringi_1.1.6     whisker_0.3-2     R.oo_1.21.0      
[13] R.utils_2.6.0     rmarkdown_1.9     tools_3.4.3      
[16] stringr_1.3.0     yaml_2.1.18       compiler_3.4.3   
[19] htmltools_0.3.6   knitr_1.20

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